History Of Science

History Of Science

universe bulk volume brane dimension
For decades, theorists have been cooking up "theories of everything" to explain our Universe. Are all of them completely off-track?
Millikan Lemaitre and Einstein
Not everyone accepts the scientific consensus; some even make careers out of challenging it. But only a select few do it the right way.
An artist's impression of an ultra high energy cosmic ray.
The highest-energy particles could be a sign of new, unexpected physics. But the simplest, most mundane explanation is particularly iron-ic.
gravitational wave effects on spacetime
We've now detected hundreds of gravitational waves with LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA. What if we tried Weber's original method in the modern day?
Black and white illustration of a human brain with purple scribble circles and arrows pointing toward it on a light background, perfect for those interested in books about the brain.
Neuroscientist Rachel Barr shares her favorite books on the brain and how they shaped her approach to the field.
Book cover for "Facing Infinity: Black Holes and Our Place on Earth" by Jonas Enander, featuring a starry night sky, a swirling black hole graphic, and a faint silhouette of a priest gazing into the cosmic abyss.
In this excerpt from "Facing Infinity," Jonas Enander examines how John Michell conceived of "dark stars," or massive bodies with enough gravity to trap light, all the way back in 1783.
Two identical, intricate, circular geometric patterns with symmetrical, multicolored lines and shapes are displayed side by side on a white background—each subtly reflecting the argument against theory of everything’s promise of perfect symmetry.
The Holy Grail of physics is a Theory of Everything: where a single equation describes the whole Universe. But maybe there simply isn't one?
A frayed rope descends from above and is attached to the top of a blue Earth, symbolizing fragility or tension.
A paradigm should be elastic enough to accommodate new data and broad enough to explain the world. For Rupert Sheldrake, ours does neither.
globular cluster terzan 5
For centuries, even after we knew the Sun was a star like any other, we still didn't know what it was made of. Cecilia Payne changed that.
A cartoon of three cosmic phenomena (CMB, Baryon Acoustic Oscillations, Supernovae) pulling on a triangle. Text below reads: "Something has to give...
DESI, by mapping galaxies, has claimed they see evidence for dark energy evolving by getting weaker. But that's only one interpretation.
Illustration of a comet from an old manuscript on the left, and a black and white image of a comet in space on the right.
Fears of celestial collisions — and calculations of their likelihood — go back to the very origins of modern science itself.
Diagram showing the cosmic microwave background radiation with satellites COBE, WMAP, and Planck, illustrating improvements in observational detail and resolution.
First discovered in the mid-1960s, no cosmic signal has taught us more about the Universe, or spurred more controversy, than the CMB.
An abstract geometric pattern of spirals and interlocking squares in white on a black grid background evokes the elegant precision often found at the intersection of mathematics and science.
Physicist Don Lincoln explains why mathematics is a powerful tool for scientific modeling, but is not a science itself.
Close-up of a dropper releasing a drop of yellow liquid, showcasing the foundation of chemistry against a pristine white background.
One alchemist's search for a whiz-bang method to produce gold unlocked the central science instead.
atoms
If atoms are mostly empty space, then why can't two objects made of atoms simply pass through each other? Quantum physics explains why.
einstein general relativity curved spacetime
Most waves need a medium to travel through. But the way that light and gravitational waves travel shows that space can't be a medium at all.
lookback time galaxies
For nearly 60 years, the hot Big Bang has been accepted as the best story of our cosmic origin. Could the Steady-State theory be possible?
An illustration of Galileo Galilei with a historical text and a lunar sketch alongside.
"I was stunned. Here in front of me was the original apparatus through which a new vision of the world was slowly and painfully brought to light."
Close-up of multi-colored snowflakes on the left and a detailed view of a spiral galaxy on the right against a star-filled background.
How did life on Earth begin? Is there life on other worlds? An answer to either question will reflect heavily on the other. 
Two individuals examine a large panel of wires and components. Overlaid on the right is a chart with arrows and symbols, possibly depicting a scientific process or experiment.
Why hasn’t matter fallen apart over billions of years? The mystery might start with protons.
Diagram of the expanding universe concept with cosmic inflation, light cone, and time axis.
Almost everyone asserts that the Big Bang was the beginning of everything, followed by inflation. Has everyone gotten the order wrong?
einstein
Many mavericks look to Einstein as a unique figure, whose lone genius revolutionized the Universe. The big problem? It isn't true.
Collage of scientific discovery elements including a portrait, butterfly, globe, molecular diagrams, a tree diagram, and a hand holding a test tube against a plain background.
Are breakthroughs really a matter of chance, or are they simply waiting to be uncovered by the right person at the right time?
Green and yellow abstract scientific illustration depicting molecular structures interconnected with arrows, set against a dark background.
It's deceptively tricky to distinguish living systems from non-living systems. Physics may be key to solving the problem.
A graph depicting projectile motion with displacement on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. The projectile's trajectory forms a perfect parabola, with initial velocity u and angle θ clearly indicated.
Taught in every introductory physics class for centuries, the parabola is only an imperfect approximation for the true path of a projectile.
Diagram showing four circles, each containing a different particle symbol: antiproton (n-bar), antineutron (n-bar), anti-lambda (Λ-bar), and antiproton (p-bar), set against a graph-like background.
Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory recently created the heaviest exotic antimatter hypernucleus ever observed.
Einstein
More than any other equation in physics, E = mc² is recognizable and profound. But what do we actually learn about reality from it?
two particles different wavelength speed of light
The Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887, despite expectations, revealed a null result: no effect. The implications were revolutionary.
Comparison chart showing the Standard Model particles on the left and the hypothetical SUSY particles on the right. The red arrow highlights the SUSY gluon (g-tilde). Before we give up supersymmetry, consider how these theoretical particles could revolutionize our understanding of physics.
Almost 100 years ago, an asymmetric pathology led Dirac to postulate the positron. A similar pathology could lead us to supersymmetry.